1. Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 A Brief History of Satellite Communications 1.3 Satellite Communications in 2000 1.4 Overview of Satellite Communications 1.5 Summary References 2. Orbital Mechanics and Launchers 2.1 Orbital Mechanics Developing the Equations of the Orbit Kepler's Three Laws of Planetary Motion Describing the Orbit of a Satellite Locating the Satellite in the Orbit Locating the Satellite with Respect to the Earth Orbital Elements Example 2.1.1 Geostationary Satellite Orbit Radius Example 2.1.2 Low Earth Orbit Example 2.1.3 Elliptical Orbit 2.2 Look Angle Determination The Subsatellite Point Elevation Angle Calculation Azimuth Angle Calculation Specialization to Geostationary Satellites Visibility Test Example 2.2.1 Geostationary Satellite Look Angles 2.3 Orbital Perturbations Longitudinal Changes: Effects of the Earth's Oblateness Inclination Changes: Effects of the Sun and the Moon Example 2.3.1 Drift with a Geostationary Satellit 2.4 Orbit Determination 2.5 Launches and Launch Vehicles Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs) Placing Satellites into Geostationary Orbit 2.6 Orbital Effects in Communications Systems Performance Doppler Shift Example 2.6.1 Doppler Shift for a LEO Satellite Range Variations Solar Eclipse Sun Transit Outage 2.7 Summary References Problems 3. Satellites 3.1 Satellite Subsystems Attitude and Orbit Control System (AOCS) Telemetry, Tracking, Command and Monitoring (TTC&M) Power System Communications Subsystems Satellite Antennas 3.2 Attitude and Orbit Control System (AOCS) Attitude Control System Orbit Control System 3.3 Telemetry, Tracking, Command, and Monitoring Telemetry and Monitoring System Tracking Command 3.4 Power Systems 3.5 Communications Subsystems Description of the Communications System Transponders 3.6 Satellite Antennas Basic Antenna Types and Relationships Example 3.6.1 Global Beam Antenna Example 3.6.2 Regional Coverage Antenna Satellite Antennas in Practice 3.7 Equipment Reliability and Space Qualification Space Qualification Reliability Redundancy 3.8 Summary References Problems 4. Satellite Link Design 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Basic Transmission Theory Example 4.2.1 Example 4.2.2 4.3 System Noise Temperature and G/T Ratio Noise Temperature Calculation of System Noise Temperature Example 4.3.1 Example 4.3.2 Noise Figure and Noise Temperature Example 4.3.3 G/T Ratio for Earth Stations Example 4.3.4 4.4 Design of Downlinks Link Budgets Link Budget Example: C-Band Downlink for Earth Coverage Beam 4.5 Satellite Systems Using Small Earth Stations Direct Broadcast TV Example 4.5.1 4.6 Uplink Design Example 4.6.1 4.7 Design for Specified C/N: Combining C/N and C/I Values in Satellite Links Example 4.7.1 Overall (C/N)o with Uplink and Downlink Attenuation Uplink and Downlink Attenuation in Rain Uplink Attenuation and (C/N)up Downlink Attenuation and (C/N)dn System Design for Specific Performance Satellite Communication Link Design Procedure 4.8 System Design Examples System Design Example 4.8.1 Ku Band Uplink Design Ku Band Downlink Design Rain Effects at Ku Band Summary of Ku Band Link Performance System Design Example 4.8.2 Personal Communication System Using Low Earth Orbit Satellites Inbound Link: Mobile Terminal to Gateway Station Mobile Terminal to Satellite Link Satellite to Gateway Station Link Outbound Link Downlink C/N Budget Optimizing System Performance Link Margins with FEC Rain Attenuation at Ku Band Path Blockage at L-Band Summary of L-band Mobile PCS System Performance 4.9 Summary References Problems 5. Modulation and Multiplexing Techniques for Satellite Links 5.1 Frequency Modulation Waveform Equation for FM Bandwidth of FM Signals: Carson's Rule Baseband S/N Ratio for FM Signals Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis Pre-emphasis 5.2 Analog FM Transmission by Satellite Television Signals S/N Ratios for FM Video Transmission Example 5.2.1 FM Threshold SCPC FM Links Example 5.2.2 Data Transmission Using Analog FM Channels Example 5.2.3 5.3 Digital Transmission Baseband Digital Signals Baseband Transmission of Digital Data Band-pass Transmission of Digita Data Example 5.3.1 Example 5.3.2 Transmission of QPSK Signals through a Bandlimited Channel Example 5.3.3 Example 5.3.3 5.4 Digital Modulation and Demodulation Terminology Modulation and Coding Bit and Symbol Error Rates Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) Probability of a Symbol Error BPSK Bit Error Rate QPSK Bit Error Rate Example 5.4.1 Example 5.4.2 Generation of Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Signals QPSK Variants 5.5 Digital Transmission of Analog Signals Sampling and Quantizing Nonuniform Quantization: Compression and Expansion Signal-to-Noise Ratio in Digital Voice Systems Digital Television 5.6 Time Division Multiplexing TDM Terminology: The U.S. T1 24-Channel System Other TDM Systems Channel Synchronization in TDM 5.7 Summary References Problems 6. Multiple Access 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Intermodulation Intermodulation Example Calculation of C/N with Intermodulation Example 6.2.1 Power Sharing in FDMA Example 6.2.2 Channel Capacity with Demand Access FDMA 6.3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Bits, Symbols, and Channels TDMA Frame Structure Example 6.3.1 TDMA in a Fixed Station Network Reference Burst and Preamble Unique Word Guard Times Synchronization in TDMA Networks Transmitter Power in TDMA Networks Example 6.3.2 TDMA in a VSAT Network Example 6.3.2 TDMA in a Fixed Earth Station Network Satellite Switched TDMA 6.4 Onboard Processing Baseband Processing Transponders Satellite Switched TDMA with Onboard Processing 6.5 Demand Access Multiple Access (DAMA) Example 6.5.1 FDMA-SCPC-DA 6.6 Random Access 6.7 Packet Radio Systems and Protocols 6.8 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Spread Spectrum Transmission and Reception DS-SS CDMA Capacity Example 6.8.1 CDMA in a Fixed Earth Station Network Example 6.8.2 CDMA in an LEO Satellite Network Example 6.8.3 GPS 6.9 Summary References Problems 7. Error Control for Digital Satellite Links 7.1 Error Detection and Correction 7.2 Channel Capacity 7.3 Error Control Coding Example 7.3.1 Linear and Cyclic Block Codes Golay Codes 7.4 Performance of Block Error Correction Codes 7.5 Convolutional Codes 7.6 Implementation of Error Detection on Satellite Links Example 7.6.1 7.7 Concatenated Coding and Interleaving 7.8 Turbo Codes 7.9 Summary References Problems 8. Propagation Effects and their Impact on Satellite-Earth Links 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Quantifying Attenuation and Depolarization Example 8.2.1 8.3 Propagation Effects that Are Not Associated with Hydrometeors Atmospheric Absorption Cloud Attenuation Tropospheric Scintillation and Low Angle Fading Faraday Rotation in the Atmosphere Ionospheric Scintillations 8.4 Rain and Ice Effects Characterizing Rain Rain Climate Maps Rainfall Rate Exceedance Contour Maps Raindrop Distributions 8.5 Prediction of Rain Attenuation Example 8.5.1 Example 8.5.2 Calculation of Long-Term Statistics for NGSO Systems Scaling Attenuation with Elevation Angle and Frequency Cosecant Law Example 8.5.3 Squared Frequency Scaling Law Example 8.5.4 ITU-R Long-Term Frequency Scaling of Rain Attenuation 8.6 Prediction of XPD Canting Angle Tilt Angle Example 8.6.1 Example 8.6.2 Ice Crystal Depolarization Rain Effects on Antenna Noise Example 8.6.3 8.7 Propagation Impairment Countermeasures Attenuation Power Control Signal Processing Diversity Depolarization 8.8 Summary References Problems 9. VSAT SYSTEMS 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Overview of VSAT Systems 9.3 Network Architectures One-Way Implementation Split-Two-Way (Split IP) Implementation Two-Way Implementation 9.4 Access Control Protocols Delay Considerations 9.5 Basic Techniques Multiple Access Selection Signal Formats Modulation, Coding, and Interference Issues 9.6 VSAT Earth Station Engineering Antennas Transmitters and Receivers 9.7 Calculation of Link Margins for a VSAT Star Network 9.8 System Design Procedure: Example 9.1 Description of System System Parameters Preliminary Calculations Link C/N Ratios Inbound Links Inbound Links with 270 Channels Outbound Links System Analysis 9.9 Some New Developments 9.10 Summary References Problems 10. Low Earth Orbit and Non-Geostationary Satellite Systems 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Orbit Considerations Equatorial Orbits Inclined Orbits Elliptical Orbits Molniya Orbit Radiation Effects Sun Synchronous Orbit 10.3 Coverage and Frequency Considerations General Aspects Frequency band Elevation Angle Considerations Number of Beams per Coverage Off-Axis Scanning Determination of Optimum Orbital Altitude Radiation Safety and Satellite Telephones Projected NGSO System Customer Service Base 10.4 Delay and Throughput Considerations 10.5 System Considerations Incremental Growth Interim Operations Replenishment Options End-to-End System Implementation 10.6 Operational NGSO Constellation Designs Ellipso Globalstar New ICO Iridium Orbcomm Skybridge Teledesic Example 10.6.1 System Design 10.7 Summary References Problems 11. Direct Broadcast Satellite Television and Radio 11.1 C-Band and Ku-Band Home Satellite TV 11.2 Digital DBS TV 11.3 DBS-TV System Design 11.4 DBS-TV Link Budget 11.5 Error Control in Digital DBS-TV 11.6 Master Control Station and Uplink 11.7 Installation of DBS-TV Antennas 11.8 Satellite Radio Broadcasting 11.9 Summary References 12. Satellite Navigation and the Global Positioning System 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Radio and Satellite Navigation 12.3 GPS Position Location Principles Position Location in GPS GPS Time 12.4 GPS Receivers and Codes The C/A Code 12.5 Satellite Signal Acquisition 12.6 GPS Navigation Message 12.7 GPS Signal Levels 12.8 Timing Accuracy 12.9 GPS Receiver Operation 12.10 GPS C/A Code Accuracy Dilution of Precision: HDOP, VDOP, and GDOP 12.11 Differential GPS 12.12 Summary References Problems Appendix A Decibels in Communications Engineering Appendix B FDM/FM/FDMA Analog Telephone Transmission Baseband Voice Signal Voice Signal Multiplexing Frequency Modulation with Multiplexed Telephone Signals Bandwidth Calculation for FDM/FM Telephone Signals Telephone Performance Specifications Practical Examples Example B. 1 Example B.2 References Appendix C Complementary Error Function erfc(x) and Q Function Q(z) Equivalence Formulas and Tables of Values References Appendix D The Simple Attenuation Model Example D. 1 References Glossary Index
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