Preface F16 Acknowledgments F21 1 On Knowing a Language Introduction Defining Language Proficiency Proficiency and Language Acquisition Theory Some Research Findings about Oral Proficiency Issues in Language Proficiency Assessment：Caveats，Clarifications，and New Directions Defining the Content of Instruction：The Standards forFore~LanguageLearning Summary：On Knowing a Language Activities for Review and Discussion References 2 On Learning a Language Introduction Exploring Theories of Language Learning The Role of Individual Learner Factors in Second—Language Learning Relating Theory to Practice：Some Considerations Summary：On Learning a Language Activities for Review and Discussion References 3 On Teaching a Language Orienting Instruction toward Proficiency The Proficiency Orientation of Existing Methodologies：A PreliminaryAppraisal Three“Traditional”Methods Reactions to Audiolingualism：Two Mentalist Perspectives A Functional Approach：Communicative Language Teaching Modem Adaptations of the Direct Method Humanistic Approaches to Language Teaching Summary：On Teaching a Language Activities for Review and Discussion References 4 The Role of Context in Comprehension and Learning The Importance of Context and Background Knowledge in theComprehension Process：Some TheoreticalConsiderations Research on the Role of Context in Comprehension The Role of Computers in Providing Richer Contexts forLanguage Learning Integrating Language and Content：Immersion and Content-BasedInstruction Summary：The Role of Context in Comprehension and Learning Activities for Review and Discussion References 5 A Proficiency-Oriented Approach to Listening and Reading A Rationale for Teaching Listening and Reading Similarities in Listening and Reading Differences between Spoken and Written Discourse Integrating Listening，Reading，and the Productive Skills：The Vision of the StandardsforForeignLanguageLearning Teaching Listening Comprehension Sample Formats for Listening Comprehension Teaching Reading Comprehension Sample Formats for Reading Comprehension Summary：A Proficiency-Oriented Approach to Listening and Reading Activities for Review and Discussion References 6 Developing Oral Proficiency The Nature of Interlanguage Planning Instruction for the Development of Oral Proficiency Responding to the Learner Summary： Developing Oral Proficiency Activities for Review and Discussion References 7 Becoming Proficient in Writing Approaches to Teaching Writing at the Lower Levels of Proficiency Expressive Writing at the Intermediate and Advanced Levels： Approaches to Teaching the Composing Process Summary： Becoming Proficient in Writing Activities for Review and Discussion References 8 Teaching for Cultural Understanding Introduction Problems in the Teaching of Culture Definitions， Models， Inventories， and Frameworks： Capturing the Essence of "Culture" Strategies for Teaching Culture Summary： Teaching for Cultural Understanding Activities for Review and Discussion References 9 Classroom Testing Introduction The Case for Hybrid Classroom Tests Characteristics of Test Items and Item Types Listening Comprehension Formats Reading Comprehension Formats Writing and Mixed-Skills Formats Guidelines for Creating Contextualized Paper-and-Pencil Tests Testing Oral Skills Summary： Classroom Testing Appendix Activities for Review and Discussion References Epilogue Planning Instruction for the Proficiency-Oriented Classroom Setting Goals for a Proficiency-Oriented Program Guidelines for Planning Lessons Increasing Focus on Students Interests In Conclusion Activities for Review and Discussion References Appendix A ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines——Speaking Revised 1999 Appendix B Sample Foreign Language Media Evaluation Criteria Appendix C Samples of Error Coding Procedures for Written Work Text Permissions Index
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