1 Introduction to Digital Design Methodology 1
1.1 Design Methodology An Introduction 2
1.1.1 Design Specification 4
1.1.2 Design Partition 4
1.1.3 Design Entry 4
1.1.4 Simulation and Functional Verification 5
1.!.5 Design Integration and Verification 6
1.1.6 Presynthesis Sign-Off 6
1.1.7 Gate-Level Synthesis and Technology Mapping 6
1.1.8 Postsynthesis Design Validation 7
1.1.9 Postsynthesis Timing Analysis 8
1.1.10 Test Generation and Fault Simulation 8
1.1.11 Placement and Routing 8
1.1.12 Physical and Electrical Design Rules 9
1.1.13 Parasitic Extraction 9
1.1.14 Design Sign-Off 9
1.2 IC Technology Options 9
1.3 Overview 11
References 11
2 Review of Combinational Logic Design 13
2.1 Combinational Logic and Boolean Algebra 13
2.1.1 ASIC Library Cells 13
2.1.2 Boolean Algebra 16
2.1.3 DeMorgan's Laws 18
2.2 Theorems for Boolean Algebraic Minimization 18
2.3 Representation of Combinational Logic 21
2.3.1 Sum of Products Representation 23
2.3.2 Product-of-Sums Representation 26
2.4 Simplification of Boolean Expressions 27
2.4.1 Simplification with Exclusive-Or 36
2.4.2 Karnaugh Maps (SOP Form) 36
2.4.3 Karnaugh Maps (POS Form) 39
2.4.4 Karnaugh Maps and Don't-Cares 40
2.4.5 Extended Karnaugh Maps 41
2.5 Glitches and Hazards 42
2.5.1 Elimination of Static Hazards (SOP Form) 44
2.5.2 Summary: Elimination of Static Hazards in Two-Level Circuits 48
2.5.3 Static Hazards in Multilevel Circuits 49
2.5.4 Summary: Elimination of Hazards in Multilevel Circuits 52
2.5.5 Dynamic Hazards 52
2.6 Building Blocks for Logic Design 55
2.6.1 NAND-NOR Structures 55
2.6.2 Multiplexers 60
2.6.3 Demultiplexers 61
2.6.4 Encoders 62
2.6.5 Priority Encoder 63
2.6.6 Decoder 64
2.6.7 Priority Decoder 66
References 67
Problems 67
3 Fundamentals of Sequential Logic Design 69
3.1 Storage Elements 69
3.1.1 Latches 70
3.1.2 Transparent latches 71
3.2 Flip-Flops 71
3.2.1 D-Type Flip-Flop 71
3.2.2 Master-Slave Flip-Flop 73
3.2.3 J-K Flip-Flop 75
3.2.4 T Flip-Flop 75
3.3 Busses and Three-State Devices 76
3.4 Design of Sequential Machines 80
3.5 State-Transition Graphs 82
3.6 Design Example: BCD to Excess-3 Code Converter 84
3.7 Serial-Line Code Converter for Data Transmission 89
3.7.1 A Mealy-Type FSM for Serial Line-Code Conversion 92
3.7.2 A Moore-Type FSM for Serial Line-Code Conversion 93
3.8 State Reduction and Equivalent States 95
References 99
Problems 100
4 Introduction to Logic Design with Verilog 103
4.1 Structural Models of Combinational Logic 104
4.1.1 Verilog Primitives and Design Encapsulation 104
4.1.2 Verilog Structural Models 107
4.1.3 Module Ports 107
4.1.4 Some Language Rules 108
4.1.5 Top-Down Design and Nested Modules 108
4.1.6 Design Hierarchy and Source-Code Organization 111
4.1.7 Vectors in Verilog 113
4.1.8 Structural Connectivity 114
4.2 Logic Simulation, Design Verification, and Test Methodology 119
4.2.1 Four-Valued Logic and Signal Resolution in Verilog 119
4.2.2 Test Methodology 120
4.2.3 Signal Generators for Testbenches 123
4.2.4 Event-Driven Simulation 125
4.2.5 Testbench Template 125
4.2.6 Sized Numbers 126
4.3 Propagation Delay 126
4.3.1 Inertial Delay 129
4.3.2 Transport Delay 131
4.4 Truth Table Models of Combinational and Sequential Logic with
Verilog 132
References 140
Problems 140
5 Logic Design with Behavioral Models of Combinational
and Sequential Logic 143
5.1 Behavioral Modeling 143
5.2 A Brief Look at Data Types for Behavioral Modeling 145
5.3 Boolean-Equation-Based Behavioral Models of
Combinational Logic 145
5.4 Propagation Delay and Continuous Assignments 148
5.5 Latches and Level-Sensitive Circuits in Verilog 150
5.6 Cyclic Behavioral Models of Flip-Flops and Latches 153
5.7 Cyclic Behavior and Edge Detection 154
5.8 A Comparision of Styles for Behavioral Modeling 156
5.8.1 Continuous-Assignment Models 156
5.8.2 Dataflow/RTL Models 158
5.8.3 Algorithm-Based Models 162
5.8.4 Port Names: A Matter of Style 164
5.8.5 Simulation with Behavioral Models 164
5.9 Behavioral Models of Multiplexers, Encoders, and Decoders 165
5.10 Dataflow Models of a Linear-Feedback Shift Register 174
5.11 Modeling Digital Machines with Repetitive Algorithms 176
5.11.1 Intellectual Property Reuse and Parameterized Models 181
5.11.2 Clock Generators 183
5.12 Machines with Multicycle Operations 185
5.13 Design Documentation with Functions and Tasks: Legacy
or Lunacy.9 186
5.13.1 Tasks 187
5.13.2 Functions 189
5.14 Algorithmic State Machine Charts for Behavioral Modeling 190
5.15 ASMD Charts 194
5.16 Behavioral Models of Counters, Shift Registers, and Register Files 196
5.16.1 Counters 197
5.16.2 Shift Registers 203
5.16.3 Register Files and Arrays of Registers (Memories) 207
5.17 Switch Debounce, Metastability, and Synchronizers for Asynchronous Signals 210
5.18 Design Example: Keypad Scanner and Encoder 216
References 224
Problems 225
6 Synthesis of Combinational and Sequential Logic 233
6.1 Introduction to Synthesis 234
6.1.1 Logic Synthesis 235
6.1.2 RTL Synthesis 243
6.1.3 High-Level Synthesis 244
6.2 Synthesis of Combinational Logic 245
6.2.1 Synthesis of Priority Structures 250
6.2.2 Exploiting Logical Don't-Care Conditions 251
6.2.3 ASIC Cells and Resource Sharing 256
6.3 Synthesis of Sequential Logic with Latches 258
6.3.1 Accidental Synthesis of Latches 260
6.3.2 Intentional Synthesis of Latches 264
6.4 Synthesis of Three-State Devices and Bus Interfaces 268
6.5 Synthesis of Sequential Logic with Flip-Flops 271
6.6 Synthesis of Explicit State Machines 275
6.6.1 Synthesis of a BCD-to-Excess-3 Code Converter 275
6.6.2 Synthesis of a Mealy-Type NRZ-to-Manchester Line Code
Converter 280
6.6.3 Synthesis of a Moore-Type NRZ-to-Manchester Line Code
Converter 282
6.6.4 Synthesis of a Sequence Recognizer 283
6.7 Registered Logic 292
6.8 State Encoding 299
6.9 Synthesis of Implicit State Machines, Registers, and Counters 301
6.9.1 Implicit State Machines 301
6.9.2 Synthesis of Counters 302
6.9.3 Synthesis of Registers 304
6.10 Resets 309
6.11 Synthesis of Gated Clocks and Clock Enables 313
6.12 Anticipating the Results of Synthesis 314
6.12.1 Synthesis of Data Types 314
6.12.2 Operator Grouping 314
6.12.3 Expression Substitution 316
6.13 Synthesis of Loops 319
6.13.1 Static Loops without Embedded Timing Controls 319
6.13.2 Static Loops with Embedded Timing Controls 322
6.13.3 Nonstatic Loops without Embedded Timing Controls 326
6.13.4 Nonstatic Loops with Embedded Timing Controls 328 ~
6.13.5 State-Machine Replacements for Unsynthesizable Loops 331
6.14 Design Traps to Avoid 338
6.15 Divide and Conquer: Partitioning a Design 338
References 339
Problems 339
7 Design and Synthesis of Datapath Controllers 347
7.1 Partitioned Sequential Machines 347
7.2 Design Example: Binary Counter 349
7.3 Design and Synthesis of a RISC Stored-Program Machine 355
7.3.1 RISC SPM:Processor 357
7.3.2 RISC SPM:ALU 357
7.3.3 RISC SPM: Controller 357
7.3.4 RISC SPM:Instruction Set 358
7.3.5 RISC SPM: Controller Design 360
7.3.6 RISC SPM: Program Execution 375
7.4 Design Example: UART 378
7.4.1 UART Operation 379
7.4.2 UART Transmitter 379
7.4.3 UART Receiver 389
References 402
Problems 402
8 Programmable Logic and Storage Devices 415
8.1 Programmable Logic Devices 417
8.2 Storage Devices 417
8.2.1 Read-Only Memory (ROM) 418
8.2.2 Programmable ROM (PROM) 421
8.2.3 Erasable ROMs 422
8.2.4 ROM-Based Implementation of Combinational Logic 423
8.2.5 Verilog System Tasks for ROMs 424
8.2.6 Comparison of ROMs 426
8.2.7 ROM-Based State Machines 426
8.2.8 Flash Memory 430
8.2.9 Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) 432
8.2.10 Ferroelectric Nonvolatile Memory 454
8.3 Programmable Logic Array (PLA) 456
8.3.1 PLA Minimization 459
8.3.2 PLA Modeling 461
8.4 Programmable Array Logic (PAL) 465
8.5 Programmability of PLDs 467
8.6 Complex PLDs (CPLDs) 467
8.7 Altera MAX 7000 CPLD 468
8.7.1 Shareable Expander 471
8.7.2 Parallel Expander 472
8.7.3 I/O Control Block 473
8.7.4 Timing Considerations 473
8.7.5 Device Resources 473
8.7.6 Other Altera Device Families~ 474
8.8 XILINX XC9500 CPLDs 474
8.9 Field-Programmable Gate Arrays 476
8.9.1 The Role of FPGAs in the ASIC Market 478
8.9.2 FPGA Technologies 479
8.10 Altera Flex 8000 FPGAs 480
8.11 AlteraFlex 10FPGAs 481
8.12 Altera Apex FPGAs 486
8.13 Altera Chip Programmability 488
8.14 XILINX XC4000 Series FPGA 488
8.14.1 Basic Architecture 488
8.14.2 XC4000 Configurable Logic Block 488
8.14.3 Dedicated Fast Carry and Borrow Logic 490
8.14.4 Distributed RAM 491
8.14.5 XC4000 Interconnect Resources 491
8.14.6 XC4000 I/O Block (IOB)' 492
8.14.7 Enhancements in the XC4000E and XC4000X Series 495
8.14.8 Enhancements in the Spartan Series 495
8.15 XILINX Spartan XL FPGAs 497
8.16 XILINX Spartan II FPGAs 498
8117 XILINX Virtex FPGAs 502
8.18 Embeddable and Programmable IP Cores for a System on a Chip
(SoC) 504
8.19 Verilog-Based Design Flows for FPGAs 505
8.20 Synthesis with FPGAs 505
References 508
Related Web Sites 509
Problems 509
9 Algorithms and Architectures for Digital Processors 547
9.1 Algorithms, Nested-Loop Programs, and Data Flow Graphs 548
9.2 Design Example: Halftone Pixel Image Converter 551
9.2.1 Baseline Design for a Halftone Pixel Image Converter 554
9.2.2 NLP-Based Architectures for the Halftone Pixel Image
Converter 558
9.2.3 Concurrent ASMD-Based Architecture for a Halftone
Pixel Image Converter 570
9.2.4 Halftone Pixel Image Converter: Design Tradeoffs 583
9.2.5 Architectures for Dataflow Graphs with Feedback 584
9.3 Digital Filters and Signal Processors 591
9.3.1 Finite-Duration Impulse Response (FIR) Filter 594
9.3.2 Digital Filter Design Process 595
9.3.3 Infinite-Duration Impulse Response (IIR) Filter 600
9.4 Building Blocks for Signal Processors 603
9.4.1 Integrators (Accumulators) 604
9.4.2 Differentiators 608
9.4.3 Decimation and Interpolation Filters 608
9.5 Pipelined Architectures 614
9.5.1 Design Example: Pipelined Adder 617
9.5.2 Design Example: Pipelined FIR Filter 622
9.6 Circular Buffers 622
9.7 FIFOs and Synchronization across Clock Domains 628
References 642
Problems 642
10 Architectures for Arithmetic Processors 651
10.1 Number Representation 651
10.1.1 Signed Magnitude Representation of Negative Integers 652
10.1.2 Ones Complement Representation of Negative Integers 653
10.1.3 Twos Complement Representation of Positive and
Negative Integers 654
10.1.4 Representation of Fractions 656
10.2 Functional Units for Addition and Subtraction 656
10.2.1 Ripple-Carry Adder 656
10.2.2 Carry Look-Ahead Adder 656
10.2.3 Overflow and Underflow 662
10.3 Functional Units for Multiplication 663
10.3.1 Combinational (Parallel) Binary Multiplier 663
10.3.2 Sequential Binary Multiplier 667
10.3.3 Sequential Multiplier Design' Hierarchical Decomposition 668
10.3.4 STG-Based Controller Design 669
10.3.5 Efficient STG-Based Sequential Binary Multiplier 676
10.3.6 ASMD-Based Sequential Binary Multiplier 682
10.3.7 Efficient ASM-Based Sequential Multiplier 686
10.3.8 Summary ofASMD-Based Datapath Controller Design 691
10.3.9 Reduced-Register Sequential Multiplier 693
10.3.10 Implicit-State-Machine Binary Multiplier 698
10.3.11 Booth's-Algorithm Sequential Multiplier 711
10.3.12 Bit-Pair Encoding 721
10.4 Multiplication of Signed Binary Numbers 728
10.4.1 Product of Signed Numbers: Negative Multiplicand, Positive
Multiplier 729
10.4.2 Product of Signed Numbers: Positive Multiplicand, Negative
Multiplier 729
10.4.3 Product of Signed Numbers: Negative Multiplicand, Negative
Multiplier 730
10.5 Multiplication of Fractions 731
10.5.1 Signed Fractions: Positive Multiplicand, Positive Multiplier 732
10.5.2 Signed Fractions: Negative Multiplicand, Positive Multiplier 733
10.5.3 Signed Fractions: Positive Multiplicand, Negative Multiplier 733
10.5.4 Signed Fractions: Negative Multiplicand, Negative Multiplier 734
10.6 Functional Units for Division 735
10.6.1 Division of Unsigned Binary Numbers 735
10.6.2 Efficient Division of Unsigned Binary Numbers 742
10.6.3 Reduced-Register SequentialDivider 750
10.6.4 Division of Signed (2s Complement)Binary Numbers 757
References 757
Problems 757
11 Postsynthesis Design Tasks 765
11.1 Postsynthesis Design Validation 765
11.2 Postsynthesis Timing Verification 768
11.2.1 Static Timing Analysis 770
11.2.2 Timing Specifications 773
11.2.3 Factors That Affect Timing 775
11.3 Elimination of ASIC Timing Violations 779
11.4 False Paths 783
11.5 Dynamically Sensitized Paths 785
11.6 System Tasks for Timing Verification 787
11.6.1 Timing Check: Setup Condition 787
11.6.2 Timing Check: Hold Condition 788
!1.6.3 Timing Check: Setup and Hold Conditions 789
11.6.4 Timing Check: Pulsewidth Constraint 790
11.6.5 Timing Constraint: Signal Skew Constraint 791
11.6.6 Timing Check: Clock Period 791
11.6.7 Timing Check: Recovery Time 792
11.7 Fault Simulation and Testing 794
11.7.1 Circuit Defects and Faults 795
11.7.2 Fault Detection and Testing 798
11.7.3 D-Notation 800
11.7.4 Automatic Test-Pattern Generation for Combinational Circuits 804
11.7.5 Fault Coverage and Defect Levels 805
11.7.6 Test Generation for Sequential Circuits 806
11.8 Fault Simulation 811
11.8.1 Fault Collapsing 811
11.8.2 Serial Fault Simulation 812
11.8.3 Parallel Fault Simulation 812
11.8.4 Concurrent Fault Simuiation 812
11.8.5 Probabilistic Fault Simulation 813
11.9 Fault Simulation with Verifault-XL 813
11.9.1 Tasks for Fault Simulation 813
11.9.2 Fault Collapsing and Classification with Verifault-XL 814
11.9.3 Structural and Behavioral Fault Propagation 816
11.9.4 Testbench for Fault Simulation with Verifault-XL 817
11.9.5 Fault Descriptors 819
11.10 JTAG Ports and Design for Testability 821
11.10.1 Boundary Scan and JTAG Ports 823
11.10.2 JTAG Modes of Operation 825
11.10.3 JTAG Registers 826
11.10.4 JTAG Instructions 828
11.10.5 TAP Architecture 829
11.10.6 TAP Controller State Machine 833
11.10.7 Design Example: Testing with JTAG 833
11.10.8 Design Example: Built-In Self-Test 860
References 874
Problems 874
A Verilog Primitives 883
A.1 Multiinput Combinational Logic Gates 883
A.2 Multioutput Combinational Gates 885
A.3 Three-State Gates 886
A.4 MOS Transistor Switches 889
A.5 MOS Pull-Up/Pull-Down Gates 892
A.6 MOS Bidirectional Switches 892
B Verilog Keywords 895
C Verilog Data Types 897
C.1 Nets 897
C.2 Register Variables 898
C.3 Constants 902
C.4 Referencing Arrays of Nets or Regs 903
D Verilog Operators 905
D. 1 Arithmetic Operators 905
D.2 Bitwise Operators 907
D.3 Reduction Operators 908
D.4 Logical Operators 909
D.5 Relational Operators 910
D.6 Shift Operators 910
D.7 Conditional Operator 910
D.8 Concatenation Operator 911
D.9 Expressions and Operands 912
D. 10 Operator Precedence 912
E Backus-Naur Formal Syntax Notation 915
F Verilog Language Formal Syntax 917
F. 1 Source Text 917
F.2 Declarations 918
F.3 Primitive Instances 920
E4 Module Instantiation 921
E5 UDP Declaration and Instantiation 921
F.6 Behavioral Statements 922
E7 Specify Section 924
E8 Expressions 926
F.9 General 928
G Additional Features of Verilog 929
G. 1 Arrays of Primitives 929
G.2 Arrays of Modules 929
G.3 Hierarchical Dereferencing 930
G.4 Parameter Substitution 931
G.5 Procedural Continuous Assignment 932
G.6 Intra-Assignment Delay 934
G.7 Indeterminate Assignment and Race Conditions 935
G. 8 wait Statement 938
G.9 fork.., join Statement 939
GAO Named (Abstract) Events 939
G. 11 Constructs Supported by Synthesis Tools 940
H Flip-Flop and Latch Types 943
I Verilog-2001 945
1.1 ANSI C Style Changes 945
1.2 Code Management 948
1.3 Support for Logic Modeling 951
1.4 Support for Arithmetic 952
1.5 Sensitivity List for Event Control 958
1.6 Sensitivity List for Combinational Logic 958
1.7 Parameters 959
1.8 Instance Generation 962
J Programming Language Interface 967
K Websites 969
L Web-Based Tutorials 971
List of Tables 972
Index 973
Index of Verilog Modules and User-Defined Primitives 980
Summary of Key Verilog Features (IEEE 1364) 983
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