核能利用與核材料

第1 章 核物理與核輻射基礎1.1 原子模型 ·················································································21.1.1 關于原子——古典原子論和四元素論1.1.2 原子模型——原子有核還是無核1.1.3 關于原子核——帶正電的原子核為什么不分崩離析1.1.4 原子核的大小——坐鎮(zhèn)原子中心的原子核1.2 盧瑟福散射實驗 ·············································································41.2.1 盧瑟福——實驗證明原子核的存在1.2.2 關于電子——帶負電荷的粒子1.2.3 正電子——帶正電荷的電子1.2.4 加速器——產(chǎn)生高能粒子的有效手段1.3 核子與核力 ·················································································61.3.1 中子——不帶電荷的粒子1.3.2 原子序數(shù)和質(zhì)量數(shù)——對元素加以區(qū)別的原子序數(shù)1.3.3 介子——湯川秀樹預言的粒子1.3.4 幻數(shù)（魔法數(shù)）——中子數(shù)和質(zhì)子數(shù)的微妙平衡1.4 核反應與化學反應 ·············································································81.4.1 核反應——使核發(fā)生變化的反應1.4.2 核裂變的發(fā)現(xiàn)——鈾235 核裂變?yōu)閮蓧K1.4.3 原子核的結(jié)合能——為什么核子能緊密相處1.4.4 質(zhì)量虧損和能量——狹義相對論1.5 質(zhì)量虧損與核能 ···································································101.5.1 核裂變能量——高能量的發(fā)生1.5.2 化學能與核能——二者來源不同且數(shù)值差異極大1.5.3 核裂變產(chǎn)物是如何產(chǎn)生的——高放射性水平的核廢物1.5.4 同位素——化學性質(zhì)相同但質(zhì)量數(shù)不同1.6 裂變、衰變和聚變 ···································································121.6.1 閾值反應——進屋必須跨過門坎1.6.2 半衰期——元素的衰變存在規(guī)則性1.6.3 隧道效應——原子具有穿墻術(shù)1.6.4 核聚變與核裂變的不同——輕核聚合與重核分裂1.7 核燃料與核能 ············································································141.7.1 鈾——大可不必“談鈾色變”1.7.2 钚——既有武器級又有反應堆級1.7.3 超鈾元素——應用領域也很廣泛，不可替代的元素1.7.4 氚（超重氫）——混凝土也能透過1.8 放射線 ········································································161.8.1 放射線的種類——來自宇宙的放射線1.8.2 放射線和放射性——放射能力即為輻射源強度1.8.3 由放射線而產(chǎn)生的能量——物質(zhì)中的能量1.8.4 放射線對身體的影響——對DNA 造成損傷的放射線1.9 放射線的危害 ······································································181.9.1 放射當量劑量和對健康的影響——100mSv 以上即影響健康1.9.2 戈瑞和希沃特——吸收劑量和當量劑量的單位1.9.3ICRP 的建議和推薦——放射線利用的向?qū)?.9.4X 射線與γ 射線的不同——穿透力極強的放射線1.10 吸收劑量與當量劑量 ······································································201.10.1X 射線及γ 射線與電子的反應——電子的彈子房1.10.2天然放射性——日常生活中的放射線1.10.3放射線防護——為保護人類的健康和安全1.10.4放射性活度，吸收劑量和當量劑量——對食品等的限制值1.11 放射線的屏蔽與防護 ····························································221.11.1輻射屏蔽材料——屏蔽材料依射線不同而異1.11.2放射線測量儀的工作原理——利用放射線產(chǎn)生的效應1.11.3超鈾元素的應用——Am-241 用于離子式煙霧探測器1.11.4居里夫人——杰出的女科學家及核科學家一家人定義及名詞術(shù)語匯編思考題及練習題參考文獻第2 章 核能基礎2.1 反應堆是利用核能的有效手段·········································262.1.1 反應堆中發(fā)生的核裂變——如何獲得核裂變能2.1.2 中子能量與核裂變——熱中子更容易引發(fā)核裂變2.1.3 極高密度的能源——來自于愛因斯坦方程E=mc2 的巨大能量輸出2.1.4 鏈式反應——產(chǎn)生核能的反應2.2 如何實現(xiàn)可控鏈式反應··························································282.2.1 原子彈和核反應堆的差別——反應堆要絕對確保不發(fā)生核爆炸2.2.2 臨界——中子吸收和中子生成之間的平衡2.2.3 中子的減速——慢中子容易引發(fā)核裂變2.2.4 慢化劑和冷卻劑——水可以“雙肩挑”2.3 核燃料及核燃料再循環(huán)·································302.3.1 核燃料——核能之源2.3.2 核燃料是如何制造出來的——從礦石到黃餅，再經(jīng)同位素分離2.3.3 核燃料的后處理——燃料的再循環(huán)2.3.4 核燃料循環(huán)——核資源的再利用2.4 反應堆類型（1） ··························································322.4.1 反應堆的種類——形式?jīng)Q定于目的2.4.2 中子能譜與反應堆——表征反應堆特性的指標2.4.3 輕水堆——水既做慢化劑又做冷卻劑2.4.4 改良型輕水堆——更安全、更經(jīng)濟的反應堆2.5 反應堆類型（2） ······························································342.5.1 氣冷堆——到高溫氣冷堆已歷三世2.5.2 钚熱堆——目前最有效的核燃料再循環(huán)法2.5.3 快中子堆——“快”意味著中子的能量高2.5.4 核燃料的燃耗——已“燃燒”的量2.6 反應堆的調(diào)節(jié)和控制·················································362.6.1 反應堆的控制——中子數(shù)量是關鍵所在2.6.2 反應性的平衡——有各種各樣的反應性2.6.3 負的反應性反饋——反應堆本身就應具備的控制機構(gòu)2.6.4 核能世界中的第一次——芝加哥1 號堆和美國在日本投下的兩顆原子彈2.7 核事故（1） ······························································382.7.1 共同培育核電發(fā)展的良好輿論環(huán)境2.7.2 核事故分級標準——核事故從0 ~ 7 級2.7.3 美國三哩島核事故——歷史上最早的核電廠事故2.7.4 前蘇聯(lián)切爾諾貝利核事故——核污染無國界2.8 核事故（2） ···········································································402.8.1 “文殊”二次回路的鈉泄漏事故——安全隱患必須防微杜漸2.8.2JCO 臨界事故——日本最早的臨界事故2.8.3 “3·11”東日本大地震福島核電廠事故——是天災還是人禍2.8.4 反應堆的緊急停堆——插入安全棒2.9 核事故（3） ························································································422.9.1 冷卻用電源的確保——重大事故引發(fā)電源的喪失2.9.2 堆芯熔化，氫爆炸——過熱導致堆芯熔化2.9.3 衰變熱——反應堆的余熱2.9.4 千萬不能發(fā)生再臨界——必須確?？刂葡到y(tǒng)的健全性2.10 重大核事故后對核安全提出更嚴格的要求·················································442.10.1核安全的定義2.10.2核事故所帶來的危害及影響2.10.3修訂核安全法規(guī)，完善核監(jiān)管制度——核安全政策2.10.4中國的核安全觀2.11 如何保證核安全 ···············································································462.11.1防止核劫持——如何防劫防盜2.11.2核電廠從選址到運行——許可證制度2.11.3核電廠的人員許可證——操縱員和高級操縱員2.11.4安全審查和定期檢查——重點確認“停堆”“冷卻”“包容”三個關鍵環(huán)節(jié)2.12 放射性廢物處理 ·········································································482.12.1反應堆周圍的核監(jiān)測——對輻射劑量和劑量的變化進行監(jiān)測2.12.2放射性廢物——需要特殊處理的核垃圾2.12.3反應堆的退役——必須做到善始善終2.12.4反應堆的退役不能一蹴而就2.13 中國的核廢料如何處理與處置··························································502.13.1放射性廢棄物的來源及其特征2.13.2放射性廢棄物處置原則2.13.3放射性廢物的處理流程2.13.4放射性廢物的處理和處置方法定義及名詞術(shù)語匯編思考題及練習題參考文獻第3 章 核能利用中的核材料3.1 核爆炸和核反應堆的原理·····································································543.1.1 天然的核反應堆3.1.2 核爆炸原理3.1.3 核反應堆原理3.1.4 核能利用現(xiàn)狀3.2 鈾濃縮 ·····························································································563.2.1 鈾的富集度與臨界質(zhì)量3.2.2 鈾濃縮法（1）——氣體擴散法3.2.3 鈾濃縮法（2）——離心分離法3.2.4 鈾濃縮法（3）——原子激光法3.2.5 鈾濃縮法（4）——分子激光法3.3 核反應堆的種類及其結(jié)構(gòu)·········································································583.3.1 核反應堆的種類3.3.2 壓水堆3.3.3 沸水堆3.3.4 輕水堆的安全性3.4 熱中子堆中钚的使用 ·······························································603.4.1 钚熱堆的原理3.4.2MOX 核材料3.4.3 兩種核燃料的使用對比3.4.4 采用MOX 核材料的好處3.5 快中子增殖堆 ···········································································623.5.1 熱中子堆和快中子堆3.5.2 快中子增殖堆與輕水堆的比較3.5.3 利用快中子增殖堆實現(xiàn)钚燃料的增殖3.5.4 快中子增殖堆的結(jié)構(gòu)3.6 核反應堆用材料 ·········································································643.6.1 中子慢化材料3.6.2 中子吸收材料3.6.3 包殼材料和其他結(jié)構(gòu)材料3.6.4 結(jié)構(gòu)材料的輻照損傷3.7 壓水堆和沸水堆用的燃料組件······················································663.7.1 壓水堆燃料組件3.7.2 燃料元件棒3.7.3UO2 燃料芯塊3.7.4 沸水堆燃料組件3.8 核電廠的結(jié)構(gòu)部件及所用材料···························································683.8.1 核電廠的主要部件及功能3.8.2 各類反應堆的主要部件用材料3.9 壓水堆核電廠結(jié)構(gòu)及所用材料················································703.9.1 第一道安全屏障：燃料芯塊二氧化鈾陶瓷晶體（核燃料）3.9.2 第二道安全屏障：燃料包殼3.9.3 第三道安全屏障：壓力容器和一次回路壓力邊界3.9.4 第四道安全屏障：安全殼3.10 核反應堆用石墨 ·············································································723.10.1天然石墨和人造石墨3.10.2高密度、高強度、高純度的“三高”石墨3.10.3核反應堆用石墨的生產(chǎn)工藝3.10.4核石墨的應用3.11 核燃料循環(huán) ·················································································743.11.1核燃料的循環(huán)路徑3.11.2核燃料棒的構(gòu)造3.11.3核燃料棒的后處理工程3.11.4核燃料棒的安全隱患3.12 輻射能和放射線 ·················································································763.12.1輻射能和放射線的定義3.12.2放射性核素3.12.3放射線對人的危害3.13 “3·11”東日本大地震福島核電廠事故分析·····················································783.13.1強地震緊急停堆后所有水冷系統(tǒng)失靈3.13.2核余熱及衰變產(chǎn)生的熱量足以使燃料元件熔化3.13.3高溫熔體穿透壓力殼3.13.4高放射性核燃料透過壓力殼泄漏到地面、海水乃至空氣中3.14 典型核電廠事故分析 ·············································································803.14.1國際核事故分級3.14.2美國三哩島核事故3.14.3前蘇聯(lián)切爾諾貝利核事故3.15 嚴重事故——燃料熔化·······························································823.15.1何謂嚴重事故3.15.2衰變熱使溫度上升——失水事故3.15.3燃料熔化引起堆芯內(nèi)部重新配置3.15.4形成“殘渣床”和熔池3.16 極嚴重的核事故——燃料泄漏·································································843.16.1“跑離”升溫或“熔斷”升溫3.16.2堆芯熔化3.16.3燃料泄漏3.17 核聚變和聚變能的應用···········································································863.17.1自然的太陽和人造太陽3.17.2核聚變發(fā)電屬于“常閉型”3.17.3激光慣性約束核聚變3.18 托克馬克裝置的主體結(jié)構(gòu)及所用材料·················································883.18.1磁慣性約束核聚變3.18.2托克馬克聚變堆對第一壁材料的要求3.18.3核聚變既涉及又惠及廣泛的技術(shù)領域3.18.4核聚變反應堆的結(jié)構(gòu)和聚變能應用前景定義及名詞術(shù)語匯編思考題及練習題參考文獻第4 章 核電廠主要設備及核材料4.1 世界核電發(fā)展歷史和現(xiàn)狀····································································924.1.1 核能的開端與核電的產(chǎn)生4.1.2 從第一代到第四代核電機組4.1.3 世界核電發(fā)展現(xiàn)狀4.1.4 世界核電發(fā)展歸于理性4.2 中國核電發(fā)展后來者居上（1） ···································································944.2.1 中國核電產(chǎn)業(yè)從無到有4.2.2 中國的核能核工業(yè)發(fā)展簡況4.2.3 中國核電發(fā)展的四個階段4.2.4 國家核電核工業(yè)發(fā)展的組織架構(gòu)4.3 中國核電發(fā)展后來者居上（2） ·····················································964.3.1 中國的核電——后來居上，發(fā)展最快4.3.2 中國的第三代核電4.3.3 中國核電著眼海上4.3.4 加強國際核安全體系，推進全球核安全治理——推進核安全國際合作4.4 不同堆型各有所長（1） ··········································································984.4.1 壓水堆——歷史悠久，技術(shù)成熟4.4.2 沸水堆——壓水堆的“孿生姐妹”4.4.3 重水堆——重水作慢化劑，天然鈾作燃料4.4.4 超臨界水冷堆——功率密度和熱效率更高4.5 不同堆型各有所長（2） ····························································1004.5.1 高溫氣冷堆4.5.2 快中子增殖堆的結(jié)構(gòu)4.5.3 快中子增殖堆的發(fā)展狀況4.6 壓水堆電廠的結(jié)構(gòu)和原理································································· 1024.6.1 典型的壓水堆電廠外貌和核電廠的組成4.6.2 壓水堆核電廠原理4.6.3 核島（反應堆廠房）和常規(guī)島（汽輪機廠房）4.6.4 燃料廠房和其他廠房4.7 各類核材料的選材原則·································································· 1064.7.1 選擇核材料的首要標準——滿足功能要求4.7.2 核燃料為什么選擇二氧化鈾而非鈾合金4.7.3 燃料包殼為什么選擇鋯合金4.7.4 作為結(jié)構(gòu)材料的不銹鋼和高鎳合金4.8 核電壓力容器用鋼的選材及演化歷史··············································· 1084.8.1 核電壓力容器用鋼的演化歷史4.8.2SA508 系列鋼中的化學成分和力學性能4.9 SA508 系列鋼中的主要元素及其作用························································ 1104.9.1 對核電壓力容器用鋼的性能要求4.9.2SA508 系列鋼中的主要元素及其作用4.10 核反應堆壓力容器及蒸汽發(fā)生器的制造················································ 1124.10.1核反應堆壓力容器4.10.2壓水堆核電廠核島部分的大型鍛件4.10.3SA508-3 鋼的組織與熱處理4.11 核壓力容器的輻照損傷····································································· 1144.11.1壓力容器鋼輻照脆化4.11.2輻照脆化機制4.11.3高強度低合金鋼大型鍛件中的氫脆現(xiàn)象4.12 核燃料組件和控制棒組件····························································· 1164.12.1上部堆內(nèi)構(gòu)件和下部堆內(nèi)構(gòu)件4.12.2核燃料組件的組成及裝料4.12.3控制棒組件及其驅(qū)動機構(gòu)4.12.4材料在核安全中的重要作用4.13 反應堆的四道安全屏障································································· 1184.13.1反應堆的四道安全屏障4.13.2由UO2 粉末制作二氧化鈾陶瓷核燃料芯塊4.13.3作為燃料包殼管的鋯合金4.14 核電廠的主要設備 ··································································· 1204.14.1反應堆冷卻劑泵4.14.2蒸汽發(fā)生器和穩(wěn)壓器4.14.3核電廠用汽輪機和發(fā)電機4.14.4AP1000 機組采用的非能動安全系統(tǒng)4.15 高鐵和核電——“一帶一路”的兩根支柱···················································· 1224.15.12030 年核電裝機容量將達到1.5 億kW4.15.2高鐵與核電是輸出戰(zhàn)略的兩個支柱4.15.3“中國制造2025”關于核電產(chǎn)業(yè)發(fā)展方針4.15.4在海外，到2020 年要完成中國造核電廠6~8 座4.16 中國核電進軍英國和阿根廷································································· 1244.16.1中國廣核集團向英國三個核電廠出資，布拉德韋爾采用“華龍一號”4.16.2與英國、歐洲大陸簽署多項合作協(xié)議4.16.3中國核工業(yè)集團與阿根廷簽署建設“華龍一號”合同4.16.4以羅馬尼亞為據(jù)點，展開向歐洲的核電技術(shù)服務4.17 與法、美等國進一步合作································································ 1264.17.1與法國共同實施后處理計劃4.17.2與法國共同開拓世界核能市場4.17.3更新核能合作協(xié)議，美、中延續(xù)蜜月期4.17.4形影相吊的日本定義及名詞術(shù)語匯編思考題及練習題參考文獻