術(shù):管理臣下的技藝
申不害在韓昭侯(公元前362-前333年在位)之世地位顯赫(史書記載,昭侯曾拜他為相)(Creel 1974:21-24)。根據(jù)一些史書的記載及韓非的轉(zhuǎn)述,政治術(shù)是申不害學說的核心特色:
術(shù)者,因任而授官,循名而責實,操殺生之柄,課群臣之能者也,此人主之所執(zhí)也。(《韓非子·定法》)
... the means whereby to create posts according to responsibilities,hold actual services accountable according to official titles,exercise the power over life and death,and examine the officials’ abilities. It is what the lord of men has in his grip.(Han Fei Zi,Chapter 43,“Deciding between Two Legalistic Doctrines”,trans. Liao 1939,vol. 2:212)
申不害認為,鑒于春秋戰(zhàn)國時期很多君主淪為臣下的傀儡,君主能夠完全掌控臣下這一點至關(guān)重要。政治術(shù)可以實現(xiàn)這個可欲的結(jié)果,但不是通過重新肯定君主或圣王之地位,而是通過建立一種能夠客觀度量臣下的能力與成績的體系。申不害的方案是創(chuàng)立一套限制官員權(quán)力的機制。這樣一來,申不害的君主有點像霍布斯的君主,他是社會契約的守衛(wèi)者,但唯其一人不受契約所規(guī)定的法令的制約。允許君主的權(quán)力不受限制,就此而言申不害的理論過于簡單,但是,從另一方面來看,它卻洋溢著現(xiàn)代氣息:建立制度基礎,不再依靠人際關(guān)系或世襲官爵。因此,史華慈認為,申不害的官吏制度理論是“世界社會思想史上極其重大的事件”(1985:336)。當然,申不害提出的行政管理組織與當代自由社會中的行政管理組織之間存在很多重要差異。最突出的一點在于,社會-政治穩(wěn)定與責任只是申不害制度改革的間接目標,維護君主權(quán)威才是他的最高宗旨。申不害對官僚極不信任是有理由的(Creel 1974:61),他特別強調(diào)內(nèi)敵的危害性:
今人君之所以高為城郭而謹門閭之閉者,為寇戎盜賊之至也。今夫弒君而取國者,非必逾城郭之險而犯門閭之閉也,蔽君之明,塞君之聽,奪之政而專其令,有其民而取其國矣。(《申不害殘篇》)
The reason why a ruler builds lofty inner walls and outer walls,and looks carefully to the barring of doors and gates,is to prepare against the coming of invaders and bandits. But one who murders the ruler and takes his state does not necessarily force his way in by climbing over difficult walls and battering in barred doors and gates. He may be one of the ruler’s own ministers,who gradually limits what the ruler is permitted to see and restricts what he is allowed to hear,until finally the minister seizes his government and monopolizes his power to command,possessing his people and taking his state.(Shen Pu-hai Fragments,trans. Creel 1974:61,344)